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Table I
Summary of the current threats to European honeybees.
| Threat | Effect | Repercusion on honeybees |
|---|---|---|
| Pollution | Water and soil contamination | Pesticides (spray, coated seeds); neonicotinoids; herbicides may be accumulated by honeybees |
| Global warming | Changed blooming season related to climate changes may limit colony growth | |
| Introduction of foreign species | Dissemination of foreign pathogens and parasites | SHB (Aethina tumida), predators (Vespa velutina, Merops apiaster); mites (Varroa destructor, Acarapis woodi, Tropilaelaps clarae); mycoses (Ascosphera apis, Aspergillus sp., Nosema apis, Nosema ceranae); Senotainia tricuspis; AFB (Paenibacillus larvae); EFB (Melissococcus plutonius, Paenibacillus alvei, Streptococcus faecalis); protozoa (Malpighamoeba melleficae), viruses (CPV, SBV, APV, DWV) |
| Dissemination of foreign subspecies | Introgressive hybridization with native honeybee subspecies | |
| Intensive land use | Destruction of natural habitats | Loss of suitable nesting and foraging habitats |
| Dissemination of genetically modify crops | Displacement of wild flora | Modification of natural habitats with the possible loss of alternative floral resources suitable for honeybees. |
| Detrimental beekeeping practices | Migratory beekeeping and queen trade over long distances | Hybridization of different subspecies |
| Large scale selective queen breeding | Loss of genetic diversity | |
| Loss of incentives for beekeeping | Reduced beekeeping activity | Reduction in European honeybee populations and possible extinction of some subspecies |
| Lack of protective policies | No control over beekeeping practices | All effects mentioned above |