Table I
Maximum pesticide incidence in apiary samples of wax, pollen, bee and honey.
| Total pesticidea | CLASSb | Maximum detection in ppb (ref.)c | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Wax | Pollen | Bee | Honey | ||
| Acephate | S OP | n.d. | 163 | n.d. | 52 |
| Acetamiprid | S NEO | n.d. | 134 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Acrinathrin | PYR | 590 (1) | – | – | 2400 (2) |
| Aldicarb | S CARB | 693 | 1342 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Aldrin | CYC | 5 (3) | – | – | 150 (4) |
| Allethrin | PYR | 139 | 11 | 24 | n.d. |
| Amicarbazone | HERB | n.d. | 98 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Amitraz | FORM | 46060 | 1117 | 13780 | 555 |
| Atrazine | S HERB | 31 | 49 | 15 | 81 (5) |
| Azinphos ethyl | OP | – | – | 94 (6) | – |
| Azinphos methyl | OP | 817 (7) | 643 | 91(6) | n.d. |
| Azoxystrobin | S FUNG | 278 | 107 | n.d. | 4 (27) |
| Bendiocarb | S CARB | 22 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Bifenthrin | PYR | 56 | 13 | 12 | 3 |
| Bitertanol | S FUNG | – | – | – | 0.1 (8) |
| Boscalid | S FUNG | 388 | 962 | 33 (9) | n.d. |
| Bromophos ethyl | OP | – | – | – | 12 (10) |
| Bromophos methyl | OP | – | – | 1733 (6) | – |
| Bromopropylate | MITI | 135000 (11) | 11 | 2245 (12) | 245 (12) |
| Captan | PS FUNG | 400 (13) | 10000 | 1740 (13) | 19 (14) |
| Carbaryl | PS CARB | 820 (13) | 94000 (15) | 5800 (13) | 42 |
| Carbendazim | S FUNG | 133 | 149 | 14 | 27 (27) |
| Carbofuran | S CARB | 22 | 1400 (16) | 669 (6) | 645 (17) |
| Carfentrazone ethyl | PS HERB | 17 | 3 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Chlordane | CYC | 60 (13) | – | 690 (13) | – |
| Chlorfenapyr | PS MITI | 12 | 1 | 3 | n.d. |
| Chlorfenvinphos | OP | 7620 (1) | 11 | n.d. | 0.2 (18) |
| Chlorothalonil | FUNG | 53700 | 98900 | 878 | 10 (19) |
| Chlorpyrifos | OP | 890 | 830 | 57 (6) | 15 (5) |
| Chlorpyrifos methyl | OP | – | – | 36 (6) | 0.2 (18) |
| Clothianidin | S NEO | n.d. | 2.6 (20) | n.d. | 0.9 (20) |
| Coumaphos | OP | 94131 | 5828 | 2777 (6) | 2020 (21) |
| Cyfluthrin | PYR | 45 | 34 | 14 | 9 (19) |
| Cyhalothrin | PYR | 17 | 1672 (22) | 2 | 0.8 (23) |
| Cymiazole | MITI | – | – | – | 17 (24) |
| Cypermethrin | PYR | 131 | 1900 (15) | 26 | 92 (5) |
| Cyproconazole | S FUNG | – | 8 (15) | – | – |
| Cyprodinil | S FUNG | 106 | 344 | 19 | n.d. |
| DDT-p,p′ | OC | > 40 | 45 | 7 | 658 (17) |
| Deltamethrin | PYR | 613 | 91 | 39 | 7 (23) |
| Dialifos | OP | – | – | – | 92 (4) |
| Diazinon | OP | 4 | 29 | 350 (13) | 35 (24) |
| p-Dichlorobenzene | OC | 60000 (25) | n.d. | n.d. | 112 (25) |
| Dichlofluanid | FUNG | – | – | – | 11 (26) |
| Dichlorvos | OP | – | – | – | 8 (19) |
| Dicloran | FUNG | – | – | – | 2 (27) |
| Dicofol | OC | 21 | 143 | 4 | 90 (27) |
| Dieldrin | CYC | 35 | n.d. | 12 | 13 (4) |
| Difenoconazole | S FUNG | n.d. | 411 (14) | n.d. | 0.9 (14) |
| Diflubenzuron | IGR | n.d. | 128 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Dimethomorph | S FUNG | 133 | 166 | 56 | n.d. |
| Dimethoate | S OP | – | – | 4864 (9) | 9 (23) |
| Diphenamid | S FUNG | n.d. | 1 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Diphenylamine | FUNG | n.d. | 32 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Endosulfan | CYC | 800 (13) | 2224 (22) | 4400 (13) | 24 (5) |
| Endrin | CYC | – | – | – | 7 (4) |
| Esfenvalerate | PYR | 56 | 60 | 9 | 0.7 (23) |
| Ethion | OP | 131 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Ethofumesate | S HERB | 560 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Etoxazole | MITI | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | 1 |
| Famoxadone | FUNG | n.d. | 141 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Fenamidone | FUNG | 138 | 74 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Fenbuconazole | S FUNG | 183 | 264 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Fenhexamid | FUNG | 9 | 129 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Fenitrothion | OP | 511 (7) | – | 10330 (6) | – |
| Fenoxaprop-ethyl | S HERB | n.d. | n.d. | 15 | n.d. |
| Fenoxycarb | IGR | – | – | 157 (6) | – |
| Fenpropathrin | PYR | 200 | 170 | 37 | n.d. |
| Fenthion | S OP | – | – | 38 (6) | – |
| Fipronil | INS | 36 | 29 | 3060 | n.d. |
| Fluoxastrobin | S FUNG | 45 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Fluridone | S HERB | 7 | 24 | 7 | n.d. |
| Flusilazole | S FUNG | – | 71 (15) | – | 0.03 (8) |
| Flutolanil | S FUNG | 105 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Flumethrin | PYR | 50 (28) | – | – | 1 (28) |
| Fluvalinate | PYR | 204000 | 2670 | 5860 | 750 (24) |
| Fonofos | OP | – | – | – | 15 (10) |
| Heptachlor | CYC | 31 | 2 | n.d. | 57 (4) |
| Heptenophos | S OP | – | – | 162 (6) | 230 (17) |
| Hexachlorobenzene | FUNG | 1 | 1 | n.d. | 270 (17) |
| Hexaconazole | S FUNG | – | 12 (15) | – | – |
| Imidacloprid | S NEO | 14 | 912 | n.d. | 2 (29) |
| Indoxacarb | INS | n.d. | 330 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Iprodione | FUNG | 636 | 5511 (30) | n.d. | 266 (30) |
| Lindane | OC | 290 (1) | 7 (29) | 11 (29) | 4310 (17) |
| Malathion | OP | 6000 (31) | 61 | 4200 (13) | 243 (5) |
| Metalaxyl | S FUNG | 1 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Methamidophos | S OP | – | – | 38 (6) | – |
| Methidathion | OP | 79 | 33 | 32 | 68 (17) |
| Methiocarb | CARB | – | – | 346 (6) | 27 (17) |
| Methomyl | S CARB | 140 (13) | – | 3400 (13) | – |
| Methoxychlor | OC | – | – | – | 593 (4) |
| Methoxyfenozide | IGR | 495 | 128 | 21 | 3 (27) |
| Metolachlor | PS HERB | n.d. | 103 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Metribuzin | S HERB | 8 | 44 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Myclobutanil | S FUNG | n.d. | 981 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Norflurazon | S HERB | 38 | 108 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Omethoate | S OP | – | – | 1156 (9) | – |
| Oxamyl | S CARB | n.d. | 43 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Oxyfluorfen | HERB | 34 | 5 | 5 | n.d. |
| Parathion ethyl | OP | 99 (7) | 19 (15) | 5 (6) | – |
| Parathion methyl | OP | 3085 (32) | 26000 (33) | 3600 (13) | 50 (33) |
| Penconazole | S FUNG | – | 126 (15) | 8 (29) | – |
| Pendimethalin | HERB | 84 | 1730 | 28 | n.d. |
| Permethrin | PYR | 372 | 92 | 19600 | 11 (27) |
| Phenothrin | PYR | n.d. | 84 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Phenthoate | OP | – | – | 1 (6) | – |
| Phorate | S OP | – | – | – | 0.9 (18) |
| Phosalone | OP | n.d. | 31 | 66 (9) | n.d. |
| Phosmet | OP | 209 | 418 | 96 (6) | n.d. |
| Phosphamidon | S OP | – | – | 50 (6) | – |
| Phoxim | OP | – | – | 355 (6) | – |
| Piperonyl butoxide | SYN | 470000 (34) | n.d. | 3000 (34) | 10 (27) |
| Pirimiphos ethyl | OP | – | – | 30 (6) | – |
| Pirimiphos methyl | OP | 57 | n.d. | 62 | 19 (10) |
| Prallethrin | PYR | 7 | 8 | 9 | n.d. |
| Prochloraz | FUNG | – | – | 412 (9) | – |
| Procymidone | S FUNG | 28 (7) | – | – | – |
| Profenofos | OP | – | – | 17 (6) | – |
| Pronamide | S HERB | 23 | 378 | 2 | n.d. |
| Propanil | HERB | n.d. | 358 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Propiconazole | S FUNG | 227 | 361 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Pyraclostrobin | FUNG | 438 | 265 | 9 | 17 |
| Pyrazophos | S OP | – | – | 53 (6) | 6 (10) |
| Pyrethrins | PYR | 237000 (34) | 62 | 600 (34) | n.d. |
| Pyridaben | MITI | 5 | 27 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Pyrimethanil | FUNG | 28 | 83 | n.d. | 4 |
| Pyriproxyfen | IGR | 8 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Quinalphos | OP | – | – | 70 (6) | 10 (23) |
| Quintozene = PCNB | FUNG | 3 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Sethoxydim | S HERB | n.d. | 173 | n.d. | 8 |
| Simazine | S HERB | n.d. | 54 | n.d. | 17 (5) |
| Spinosad | INS | – | 320 (16) | – | – |
| Spirodiclofen | MITI | 29 | 2 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Spiromesifen | S INS | n.d. | 2101 (22) | n.d. | n.d. |
| Tebuconazole | S FUNG | n.d. | 34 | 1146 (9) | 5 (5) |
| Tebufenozide | IGR | 28 | 58 | 23 | n.d. |
| Tebuthiuron | S HERB | 22 | 48 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Tefluthrin | PYR | 3 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Temephos | OP | – | – | 689 (6) | 7 (10) |
| Tetradifon | MITI | 580 | n.d. | n.d. | 19 (19) |
| Tetraconazole | S FUNG | – | – | 17 (29) | – |
| Tetramethrin | PYR | n.d. | 6 | 23 | n.d. |
| Thiabendazole | S FUNG | 76 | 6 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Thiacloprid | S NEO | 8 | 115 | n.d. | 33 |
| Thiamethoxam | S NEO | n.d. | 53 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Triadimefon | S FUNG | 2 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
| Triallate | HERB | – | – | – | 4 (26) |
| Triazophos | OP | – | – | 9 (6) | – |
| Tribufos = DEF | SYN | 59 | 4 | n.d. | n.d. |
| Trifloxystrobin | PS FUNG | 22 | 264 | n.d. | 0.3 (8) |
| Trifluralin | HERB | 36 | 14 | n.d. | 9 (19) |
| Vamidothion | S OP | – | – | 24 (6) | – |
| Vinclozolin | FUNG | 27 | 31909 (30) | 657 (9) | 173 (30) |
Acrinathrin is based mostly on 3-phenoxybenzaldehyde degradate, Aldicarb based on sulfoxide and sulfone metabolites; Amitraz based on total DMA and DMPF metabolites; Bromopropylate based on 4,4-dibromo-benzophenone; Captan includes THPI; Carbaryl includes 1-naphthol; Carbendazim is also a degradate of benomyl; Carbofuran based on parent plus 3-hydroxy metabolite; Coumaphos includes oxon, chlorferone and potasan; DDT includes DDD and DDE; Endosulfan includes isomers and sulfate; Heptachlor includes heptachlor epoxide; Imidacloprid includes 5-hydroxy and olefin metabolites; Thiabendazole is a degradate of thiophanate methyl.
Class: CAR = carbamate, CYC = cyclodiene, FORM = formamidine, FUNG = fungicide, HERB = herbicide, IGR = insect growth regulator, INS = misc. insecticide, MITI = miticide, NEO = neonicotinoid, OC = organochlorine, OP = organophosphate, PS = partial systemic, PYR = pyrethroid, S = systemic, SYN = synergist.
Data from Frazier et al. (2008); vanEngelsdorp et al. (2009b); or Mullin et al. (2010); unless otherwise referenced; n.d. = not detected.1 Jimenez et al. (2005); 2 Bernal et al. (2000); 3 Estep et al. (1977); 4 Fernandez-Muino et al. (1995); 5 Rissato et al. (2007); 6 Ghini et al. (2004); 7 Chauzat and Faucon (2007); 8 Nguyen et al. (2009); 9 Walorczyk et al. (2009); 10 Blasco et al. (2008); 11 Bogdanov et al. (1998); 12 Lodesani et al. (1992); 13 Anderson and Wojtas (1986); 14 Kubik et al. (2000); 15 Chauzat et al. (2006); 16 Bailey et al. (2005); 17 Blasco et al. (2003); 18 Balayiannis and Balayiannis (2008); 19 Rissato et al. (2004); 20 Cutler and Scott-Dupree (2007); 21 Martel et al. (2007); 22 Choudhary and Sharma (2008b); 23 Choudhary and Sharma (2008a); 24 Fernandez et al. (2002); 25 Bogdanov et al. (2004); 26 Albero et al. (2004); 27 USDA-AMS (2009); 28 Bogdanov (2006); 29 Chauzat et al. (2009); 30 Kubik et al. (1999); 31 Thrasyvoulou and Pappas (1988); 32 Russell et al. (1998); 33 Rhodes et al. (1979); 34 Taylor et al. (2007).